Terrain

Kazakhstan has a very diverse landscape: the west is dominated by the Caspian and Turan lowlands; the plateau of western Siberia is in the north; there are a number of mountain ranges in the south and south east and there are hills in the centre of the country. Its highest peak is Mt. Khan Tengri at 6,995 m, which is on the border with Kyrgyzstan. The majority of the country's rivers flow into inland lakes. Only a few of them, such as the Syr Darya and the Ili, flow into the Aral and Caspian Seas.

Climate

Kazakhstan has a continental climate and temperatures vary greatly according to the season. Winters are long and cold with temperatures ranging between -19°C and -4°C. Summers can be very hot with temperatures reaching 40°C during the day.

Fauna/Flora

As a result of the region's intensive agricultural development and the fact that the Soviet government tested nuclear weapons there, environmental problems developed towards the end of the 20th century. Chemical residue from agriculture has found its way into the rivers and subsequently into drinking water; the Kazak steppe suffers from erosion and drought as a result of over-cultivation. Antelope, brown bear, wild boar, lynx and eagles are found in the mountains; snow leopards are also occasionally seen.

History/Politics

The area of present-day Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the Bronze Age. The centuries that followed saw a number of kingdoms until the area fell into the hands of Cyrus, the founder of the Persian Empire, in the 6th century BC. Later centuries saw the area conquered by Alexander the Great, the Huns and, finally, by nomadic Turkic tribes.

The Turkic people formed alliances, which lead to the creation of a kingdom, the Turkic Kaganate, in the 6th century AD. After centuries of Arab influence and the division of the Kaganate into a western and eastern part, the inhabitants converted to Islam in 999. In the 13th century, when Arabs' power had decreased in the area, the Mongols conquered the Turkic kingdom and ruled the country until the 15th century, when the region was divided into smaller parts, the "Khanates."

The end of the 15th century saw the rise of the Khanate of Kazakhstan; other Kazakh tribes subsequently joined the Khanate. Russia started to conquer Kazakh territory in the 18th century and finally managed to gain full control over Kazakhstan in 1840. Soon afterwards, Kazakh resistance began to develop. In 1916, the Kazakhs resisted the order given by the tsar to mobilise the army and started to attack Russian settlers.

The uprising was brutally repressed and many lives were lost. After the Russian Revolution, Kazakhstan demanded autonomy, which it only gained in 1936 after it had been recognized as a Socialist Soviet Republic. During World War II and the decades that followed, the Soviet government established a policy on migration, which brought a large number of settlers from other parts of the Soviet Union to Kazakhstan and the Kazakhs therefore became a minority.

As the Soviet Union collapsed, Kazakh president Nursultan Nazarbayev declared the country's independence in December 1991, and it became a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Nazarbayev gradually introduced economic and political reforms to support the development of the country. In 1999, he was re-elected as president for another 7 years. Kazakhstan, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan formed the Eurasian Economic Community in 2000 which has similar objectives to the European Economic Community. Nazarbayev's party won the parliamentary elections that were held in October 2004.

Economy

During the Soviet Era, Kazakhstan's economy was largely based on the exploitation of energy, agricultural and raw materials. The national economy plunged into chaos as a result of the collapse of the Soviet Union and the subsequent independence of Kazakhstan, simultaneous changes in the economic system, the introduction of international market prices, trade barriers, and the development of competition.

The country's political stability was at risk as Kazakhstan was faced with hyperinflation and the side effects of the economic crises in Asia and Russia in the 1990s. Despite the rise of petroleum prices from 1999 onwards (which meant that Kazakhstan was able to regain a certain amount of economic stability), the International Monetary Fund (IMF) recommended that Kazakhstan follow a strict monetary policy. In 2003, the unemployment rate was 8.6% and the inflation rate was 6.1%.

Culture

The most well-known name in Kazak cultural history is Abay Kunanbayev, a 19th century poet who promoted Kazak as a literary language. Before Kunanbayev, Kazak literature was mainly recited in the form of songs, proverbs, tales and epic poems. According to this long-standing tradition, "aitys" (a contest in which bards contend with each other by putting forward different arguments) still take place.

Colourful textiles and rugs with geometric designs are produced in north-east Kazakhstan, at the border with Russia, China and Mongolia. This textile work shows various artistic influences.